Can a Fox Eat a Deer? Fox Diet & Predatory Acts

The question of whether a fox, a member of the *Canidae* family, *can a fox eat a deer* is a complex one when considering the average body mass of an adult deer versus that of a red fox. *Predatory behavior* exhibited by foxes generally focuses on smaller prey; however, instances of scavenging on deer carcasses, especially during winter months, are well-documented. *Ecological studies* performed in regions like Yellowstone National Park, where both foxes and deer coexist, provide data regarding their interactions and dietary habits. The *U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)* also publishes resources on wildlife management, including information on the diets of various wild canids and their potential impact on deer populations.

Foxes and Deer: An Intricate Dance Within Shared Ecosystems

The natural world is a tapestry woven with threads of interdependence, where the fate of one species is invariably linked to that of another. Among these intricate relationships, the ecological connection between foxes and deer stands out as a compelling case study.

Their shared habitats create a dynamic where predator and prey, scavenger and resource, engage in a complex interplay that shapes the very structure of their environment.

The Intertwined Lives of Fox and Deer

Foxes and deer inhabit overlapping ecosystems across a broad geographical range, creating consistent interactions. Understanding the nuances of this co-existence is vital for informed wildlife management and conservation strategies. Their shared ecosystems present a constant dynamic, shaping both populations.

Deer, primarily herbivores, form a crucial link in the food chain, converting plant matter into sustenance for a variety of predators and scavengers.

Foxes, on the other hand, occupy a versatile niche, acting as both predators and scavengers. This makes them influential in regulating populations of smaller prey while opportunistically exploiting larger carrion sources.

The Impact of Fox Diet on Deer Populations

The dietary habits of foxes, particularly their predilection for vulnerable deer fawns, have a direct impact on deer populations. The fox diet, heavily influenced by the availability of deer fawns, is important. Fluctuations in fawn survival rates can significantly affect the overall deer population structure.

This relationship highlights the importance of understanding fox diets. These insights are crucial for predicting population trends and implementing appropriate conservation measures.

Predation and Scavenging: Two Sides of the Same Coin

The fox’s role as a predator is most evident during the fawning season, when young, inexperienced deer become easy targets. Foxes will actively hunt and kill fawns, especially when other food sources are scarce. This predation can exert selective pressure on deer populations. It can also influence their behavior and habitat use.

In addition to predation, foxes also play a significant role as scavengers. Deer carcasses, whether from natural causes, disease, or other predators, provide a valuable food source. This is particularly important during lean times when hunting success may be limited.

Scavenging not only sustains fox populations, but also contributes to ecosystem health. It facilitates the decomposition of organic matter and the recycling of nutrients.

Fox Species and Their Diets: Red vs. Gray

Foxes and Deer: An Intricate Dance Within Shared Ecosystems
The natural world is a tapestry woven with threads of interdependence, where the fate of one species is invariably linked to that of another. Among these intricate relationships, the ecological connection between foxes and deer stands out as a compelling case study.
Their shared habitats create dynamic interactions, where the dietary habits and hunting strategies of foxes can influence deer populations and vice versa.

Delving into the specifics, it’s essential to differentiate between fox species themselves, as their dietary preferences and hunting behaviors can vary significantly. Two prominent species in North America, the Red Fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) and the Gray Fox ( Urocyon cinereoargenteus ), offer a compelling comparison.

The Red Fox: An Opportunistic Generalist

The Red Fox boasts a wide distribution across the Northern Hemisphere, showcasing remarkable adaptability. These foxes thrive in a variety of habitats, from forests and grasslands to even suburban and urban environments.

This adaptability is mirrored in their diet, which can be best described as opportunistic.

Dietary Versatility

Red Foxes are true generalists, consuming a broad range of food items. Their primary diet consists of rodents, rabbits, and other small mammals.

However, they are also known to prey on birds, insects, fruits, and even scavenge for carrion when available. This dietary versatility allows them to survive in diverse ecosystems and adapt to fluctuating prey availability.

Red Foxes, driven by their opportunistic nature, strategically exploit available food sources. This adaptable strategy supports their survival across diverse environments.

The Gray Fox: A Semi-Arboreal Specialist

In contrast to the Red Fox, the Gray Fox exhibits a more restricted distribution, primarily inhabiting North and Central America. Their habitat preferences lean towards woodlands, brushlands, and rocky terrain.

The Gray Fox is also uniquely adapted for climbing trees, setting it apart from other canids and influencing its hunting strategies.

Specialization and Niche Partitioning

While the Gray Fox shares some dietary overlap with the Red Fox, subtle differences emerge. They consume rodents and rabbits, but their diet also includes a higher proportion of fruits, insects, and other invertebrates.

This difference underscores their semi-arboreal lifestyle, granting them access to resources unavailable to their more terrestrial counterparts.

The Gray Fox’s niche specialization contributes to its coexistence with the Red Fox.

Hunting Strategy Differences

Unlike the Red Fox, which relies heavily on open-field hunting and pouncing techniques, the Gray Fox utilizes a more diverse hunting repertoire. Its arboreal abilities enable it to pursue prey in trees and shrubs.

Their agility allows them to access prey unavailable to the primarily terrestrial Red Fox.

Overlap and Competition: A Complex Relationship

Despite their dietary and behavioral differences, Red and Gray Foxes often share territories, leading to potential overlap and competition for resources. The dynamics of this interaction are complex, influenced by factors such as prey availability, habitat structure, and interspecific aggression.

In some areas, the larger and more adaptable Red Fox may outcompete the Gray Fox. In contrast, the Gray Fox’s climbing ability allows it to exploit resources inaccessible to the Red Fox.

Understanding the nuances of this competition is crucial for comprehending the broader ecological implications of fox predation in shared ecosystems.

Deer as a Food Source: Fawns and Carrion

Having explored the general dietary habits of foxes, particularly the Red and Gray varieties, it is essential to delve into the specifics of how deer, in their various forms, constitute a food source for these canids. Deer are not a primary food source, but their presence—especially in the form of vulnerable fawns and available carrion—plays a noteworthy role in fox ecology.

Deer Species Overview

Deer populations represent a diverse array of species, each with distinct ranges and ecological roles. Understanding this diversity is critical to appreciating the nuances of fox-deer interactions.

Key Deer Species and Their Habitats

White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are ubiquitous across North America, thriving in diverse habitats ranging from dense forests to open meadows. Their adaptability makes them a common point of interaction with various fox species.

Mule Deer (Odocoileus hemionus), primarily found in western North America, occupy habitats spanning from mountainous regions to arid deserts. The overlap in habitat with foxes, particularly the Gray Fox, influences their interactions.

Other deer species, such as Elk (Cervus canadensis) and Moose (Alces alces), may occasionally interact with foxes, though their large size generally precludes them from being primary targets.

General Diet and Habitat Preferences

Deer are primarily herbivores, relying on a diet of grasses, shrubs, and foliage. Their habitat preferences are influenced by food availability, shelter, and breeding opportunities. The seasonal changes in vegetation dictate deer movements, impacting their vulnerability to predation and the availability of carrion.

Fawn Predation

Fawns represent a particularly vulnerable segment of the deer population, making them occasional targets for foxes.

Vulnerability of Fawns

Newborn fawns are inherently vulnerable due to their small size, limited mobility, and lack of experience. They rely heavily on maternal care, and any separation from their mothers increases their risk of predation.

Circumstances Leading to Predation

Several factors contribute to the likelihood of fox predation on fawns. These include:

• Habitat Structure: Areas with fragmented or sparse vegetation offer less cover, making fawns easier to locate.
• Predator Density: Higher fox populations increase the overall predation pressure on fawns.
• Maternal Condition: If a doe is malnourished or inexperienced, she may be less effective at protecting her offspring.

Impact on Deer Population Dynamics

While fawn predation by foxes can impact local deer populations, it is typically not a primary driver of population decline. However, in specific ecosystems, particularly those with limited resources or high predator densities, the effect may be more pronounced.

Carrion Consumption

Beyond predation, foxes also consume deer carrion, which is essential for their survival during lean times.

The Role of Deer Carrion

Deer carcasses provide a valuable source of nutrients and energy, particularly during winter months or periods of food scarcity. Foxes, as opportunistic scavengers, readily take advantage of this resource.

Circumstances Leading to Carrion Availability

Deer carrion becomes available through various means, including:

• Winter Mortality: Severe winter weather can lead to deer starvation or injury, resulting in increased mortality.
• Vehicle Collisions: Roadways often intersect deer habitats, leading to vehicle-related deaths.
• Hunting Remnants: Gut piles and discarded carcasses left by hunters provide a ready source of carrion for foxes.
• Natural Deaths: Disease and old age also contribute to deer mortality and, subsequently, carrion availability.

Importance of Scavenging

Scavenging on deer carrion is particularly critical for foxes during periods when other food sources are scarce. This behavior enhances their survival rates and contributes to the overall stability of the ecosystem. By consuming carrion, foxes help recycle nutrients and reduce the spread of disease.

Hunting Strategies: Targeting Fawns

Having explored the general dietary habits of foxes, particularly the Red and Gray varieties, it is essential to delve into the specifics of how deer, in their various forms, constitute a food source for these canids. Deer are not a primary food source, but their presence—especially in the form of vulnerable fawns—presents an opportunistic, albeit challenging, meal for foxes. Understanding how foxes approach deer predation requires a nuanced perspective, considering both the inherent risks and the potential rewards for these adaptable predators.

Understanding Predation in the Fox-Deer Dynamic

Predation, in its simplest form, is a biological interaction where one organism (the predator) kills and consumes another (the prey). The relationship between foxes and deer deviates from this norm. Adult deer are rarely, if ever, targets of fox predation due to their size, strength, and vigilance. However, the equation changes dramatically when considering fawns.

Fawns, particularly in their first few weeks of life, are exceptionally vulnerable. Their limited mobility, lack of experience, and dependence on maternal care make them susceptible to a range of predators, including foxes. For foxes, targeting fawns is a calculated risk. It requires stealth, patience, and the ability to overcome the fawn’s natural defenses and the potential presence of a protective mother.

The Art of the Hunt: Fox Strategies for Fawn Predation

Foxes employ a variety of hunting strategies tailored to the specific conditions of their environment and the vulnerability of their prey. These strategies are not static; foxes are highly adaptable and will adjust their approach based on factors such as habitat type, season, and the abundance of other food sources.

Stalking and Ambush

Stealth is paramount. Foxes are known for their ability to move silently through various terrains, using natural cover to approach their prey undetected. In forested areas, foxes may use dense undergrowth to stalk fawns, gradually closing the distance before launching a surprise attack.

In more open habitats, such as grasslands, ambush tactics may be more effective. Foxes might lie in wait near known deer bedding areas or along game trails, patiently waiting for an opportunity to strike. The success of these strategies hinges on the fox’s ability to remain hidden and to accurately assess the fawn’s location and movements.

Opportunistic Encounters

While deliberate hunting strategies are important, foxes are also opportunistic feeders. They may encounter fawns while foraging for other prey or while patrolling their territory.

In these situations, the fox’s response is often determined by the fawn’s behavior and the presence of the mother deer. If a fawn appears weak, injured, or separated from its mother, a fox is more likely to attempt a kill.

Factors Influencing Hunting Success

Several key factors influence the success of fox hunting strategies. These include habitat type, seasonal variations, and the availability of alternative prey.

Habitat and Cover

The type of habitat significantly impacts hunting tactics. Forests provide ample cover for stalking, while grasslands favor ambush strategies. The density of vegetation, the presence of natural barriers, and the availability of escape routes all play a role in determining the success of a hunt.

Seasonal Variations

Seasonal changes can profoundly affect both deer and fox behavior, thereby influencing the dynamics of predation. In the spring, when fawns are born, their vulnerability is at its peak. This is also a time when other food sources may be scarce, making fawns a more attractive target for foxes.

During the winter months, harsh weather conditions can weaken deer, making them more susceptible to predation. However, snow cover can also make it easier for foxes to track deer, increasing their chances of a successful hunt.

Prey Abundance

The availability of alternative prey is a critical factor. When rodent populations are high, foxes may focus their attention on these easier-to-catch meals, reducing the pressure on deer fawns. Conversely, when other food sources are scarce, foxes may be more inclined to target fawns, even at the risk of encountering a protective mother deer.

In conclusion, while adult deer are not typically preyed upon by foxes, fawns represent a vulnerable food source that can be exploited under specific circumstances. The hunting strategies employed by foxes are adaptable and influenced by a complex interplay of factors, including habitat, season, and prey availability. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for gaining a comprehensive understanding of the ecological relationships between foxes and deer.

Having explored the general dietary habits of foxes, particularly the Red and Gray varieties, it is essential to delve into the specifics of how deer, in their various forms, constitute a food source for these canids. Deer are not a primary food source, but their presence—especially in the form of vulnerable fawns or as carrion—can significantly impact a fox’s ability to thrive, especially during periods of scarcity. This section examines the often-overlooked scavenging behavior of foxes, focusing on their capacity to locate and utilize deer carcasses, and how this behavior contributes to their overall survival.

Scavenging: Finding and Utilizing Carrion

Scavenging, in the context of the fox-deer relationship, refers to the act of a fox consuming the carcass of a deer that died from causes other than fox predation. This could include death by natural causes, disease, injuries sustained from vehicles, or even hunting activities by humans where the remains are left behind. While foxes are opportunistic hunters, scavenging plays a vital role in their dietary strategy, especially in ecosystems where deer are abundant.

The Fox as an Opportunistic Scavenger

Foxes, both Red and Gray, are renowned for their adaptability and opportunistic feeding habits.

This adaptability allows them to exploit a wide range of food sources, including carrion, to supplement their diet. Scavenging provides a readily available food source that requires minimal energy expenditure compared to hunting live prey.

It is a critical survival strategy, particularly during winter months when prey availability decreases, or during periods of drought or other environmental stresses.

Locating the Carcass: Sensory Acuity and Environmental Cues

The ability of a fox to locate a deer carcass hinges on a combination of sensory acuity and environmental awareness.

Foxes possess a highly developed sense of smell, which enables them to detect the scent of decaying flesh from considerable distances.

Prevailing wind conditions, topography, and the presence of other scavengers can all influence the fox’s ability to locate a carcass effectively.

Furthermore, foxes are highly attuned to environmental cues. They may observe the behavior of other scavengers, such as vultures or coyotes, to pinpoint the location of a potential food source.

The presence of flies or other insects associated with decomposition can also serve as an indicator.

The Importance of Carrion in Fox Survival Strategies

Carrion represents a valuable source of protein, fat, and essential nutrients for foxes, especially during times of resource scarcity. The nutritional content of deer carrion can significantly contribute to a fox’s energy reserves, helping it to maintain body temperature and overall health during harsh environmental conditions.

Overcoming Challenges

However, scavenging is not without its challenges. Foxes must often compete with other scavengers for access to the carcass.

Larger predators, such as wolves or bears, may dominate the scavenging scene, forcing foxes to scavenge what remains after these larger animals have had their fill.

Additionally, the condition of the carcass itself can present challenges. A heavily decayed carcass may pose a risk of disease, while a frozen carcass may be difficult to access.

Adaptive Strategies

Foxes have developed several adaptive strategies to overcome these challenges. They may cache portions of the carcass for later consumption, burying it to protect it from other scavengers and to preserve it for a time when food is scarce.

They also exhibit a high degree of social intelligence, often cooperating with other foxes to defend a carcass from rivals.

In essence, the scavenging behavior of foxes is a critical adaptation that allows them to thrive in environments where deer are present.

By effectively locating and utilizing deer carrion, foxes can supplement their diet, enhance their survival prospects, and play a crucial role in the ecosystem by helping to recycle nutrients and prevent the spread of disease. This opportunistic feeding behavior underscores the fox’s adaptability and resilience in a dynamic and challenging environment.

Ecological Impacts: Balancing Populations

Having explored the general dietary habits of foxes, particularly the Red and Gray varieties, it is essential to delve into the specifics of how deer, in their various forms, constitute a food source for these canids. Deer are not a primary food source, but their presence—especially in the form of vulnerable fawns or as carrion—can significantly impact the dynamics of local ecosystems. The ecological implications of this predator-prey relationship are far-reaching, influencing both fox survival rates and the overall health of deer populations.

Fox Predation and Deer Population Dynamics

The relationship between foxes and deer is a delicate dance of predator and prey, with fox predation playing a critical role in shaping deer populations. While adult deer are rarely targeted by foxes, the vulnerability of fawns makes them susceptible to predation, particularly in the early stages of life.

The extent to which foxes impact deer populations varies depending on factors such as habitat, deer density, and the availability of alternative food sources for foxes. In areas where deer populations are high, fox predation may serve as a regulatory mechanism, preventing overgrazing and maintaining a balance within the ecosystem.

However, in regions with already stressed or declining deer populations, increased fox predation can exacerbate the problem, leading to further declines. It’s a complex relationship, demanding careful observation and understanding.

Opportunistic Feeding and Fox Survival Rates

Foxes are renowned for their opportunistic feeding habits, consuming a wide array of food items depending on availability. This dietary flexibility is crucial to their survival, particularly in environments where resources fluctuate seasonally. The availability of carrion, including deer carcasses, can provide a valuable source of sustenance, especially during lean times.

The influence of opportunistic feeding on fox survival rates is significant. Foxes that are able to supplement their diet with carrion or other readily available food sources are more likely to survive and reproduce, contributing to the overall stability of fox populations.

This is especially true during harsh winters or periods of drought when primary food sources may be scarce. This adaptability allows foxes to thrive in a range of ecosystems.

Foxes and Deer in the Food Web: Interconnected Roles

Both foxes and deer occupy vital roles within the food web of their ecosystems, contributing to the overall health and stability of these environments. Deer, as primary herbivores, play a crucial role in shaping plant communities through their grazing habits.

Foxes, as secondary consumers, help to control populations of smaller mammals, birds, and insects, in addition to occasionally preying on vulnerable deer.

The interconnectedness of these species highlights the importance of maintaining biodiversity. Changes to one population can have cascading effects throughout the entire ecosystem. For example, a decline in fox populations could lead to an increase in deer populations, potentially resulting in overgrazing and habitat degradation.

Understanding the intricate relationships between foxes, deer, and other species is essential for effective wildlife management and conservation efforts. The health of the environment depends on the interplay of many species.

Habitat’s Influence: Forests and Grasslands

Having explored the ecological impacts of fox predation on deer populations, and the influence of opportunistic feeding on fox survival, it is essential to consider the critical role that shared habitats play in shaping the predator-prey dynamic between these two species. Forests and grasslands, as primary environments for both foxes and deer, present unique challenges and opportunities that directly influence their interactions and survival strategies. Understanding these habitat-specific dynamics is crucial for a comprehensive grasp of their relationship.

The Impact of Shared Environments

The essence of any predator-prey relationship is profoundly influenced by the characteristics of their shared environment.

Forests, with their dense vegetation and complex terrains, offer both cover and concealment. This impacts the hunting strategies of foxes and the defensive behaviors of deer.

Grasslands, on the other hand, provide open spaces where visibility is higher, affecting the dynamics of pursuit and evasion.

Forest Habitats: A Landscape of Concealment

In forested areas, the dense undergrowth and varied topography allow foxes to utilize ambush tactics more effectively.

Red Foxes, in particular, excel in these environments, using their agility to navigate through the trees and shrubs, and surprise their prey.

Deer, however, have adapted to this by developing heightened senses and awareness, constantly scanning their surroundings for potential threats.

The forest, therefore, becomes a stage for a constant game of hide-and-seek, where survival depends on vigilance and strategic positioning.

Deer Adaptations in Forests

Deer in forested habitats exhibit specific behavioral adaptations to mitigate the risk of predation.

These include enhanced auditory and olfactory senses, allowing them to detect approaching predators early on.

Furthermore, their coat coloration provides excellent camouflage, blending seamlessly with the surrounding foliage.

Fox Hunting Strategies in Forests

Foxes in forests rely on stealth and knowledge of the terrain to hunt effectively.

They often patrol familiar routes, using their keen sense of smell to locate potential prey.

The ability to move quietly and quickly through the undergrowth is essential for ambushing deer, particularly vulnerable fawns.

Grassland Habitats: Open Spaces and Long Pursuits

In contrast to forests, grasslands present an environment where visibility is increased, and concealment is limited.

This shifts the dynamics of predator-prey interactions, favoring speed and endurance.

Gray Foxes, with their ability to run at considerable speeds, may have advantages in these open environments.

Deer in grasslands rely on their agility and stamina to outrun predators in extended chases.

Deer Adaptations in Grasslands

Deer inhabiting grasslands have evolved physical and behavioral traits that enhance their chances of survival.

Their long legs and slender bodies allow them to run at high speeds over long distances.

Additionally, their herding behavior provides a degree of collective defense, with multiple individuals scanning for threats.

Fox Hunting Strategies in Grasslands

Foxes in grasslands adopt hunting strategies that exploit the open terrain.

They may use their sharp eyesight to spot deer from a distance, initiating a chase from afar.

Alternatively, they may utilize the available cover, such as tall grasses or small shrubs, to approach their prey undetected.

Coexistence and Adaptations

The interplay between foxes and deer in shared habitats is a testament to the adaptive capabilities of both species.

Their respective behaviors and physical attributes are shaped by the need to survive and thrive in their environments.

Ultimately, the constant evolutionary pressure exerted by the predator-prey relationship drives the ongoing adaptation of both foxes and deer, ensuring their continued presence in the ecosystem.

Survival Strategies: A Matter of Diet and Adaptation

Having explored the ecological impacts of fox predation on deer populations, and the influence of opportunistic feeding on fox survival, it is essential to consider the critical role that shared habitats play in shaping the predator-prey dynamic between these two species. Forests and grasslands, as primary environments for both foxes and deer, present unique challenges and opportunities that profoundly affect their respective survival strategies. Understanding these strategies necessitates a comparative analysis of their diets, adaptations, and the ways in which they navigate their shared world.

Predator-Prey Dynamics and Survival Chances

The relationship between foxes and deer is a perpetual balancing act, a delicate dance between predator and prey. For foxes, survival hinges on their ability to effectively hunt or scavenge, securing enough sustenance to fuel their daily activities and reproductive efforts. Deer, on the other hand, must evade predation while simultaneously finding sufficient forage to sustain themselves and their offspring.

The success of each species is intricately linked to the other, creating a dynamic where fluctuations in one population can trigger corresponding changes in the other. This interconnectedness underscores the importance of adaptation and resourcefulness in the struggle for survival.

Hunting Strategies: Fox Agility vs. Deer Vigilance

Foxes employ a variety of hunting strategies tailored to their environment and the available prey. Their relatively small size and agility allow them to navigate dense undergrowth and exploit vulnerabilities in their prey’s defenses. For deer, the primary defense against predation is vigilance. Their acute senses, combined with their speed and agility, enable them to detect and evade potential threats.

However, the effectiveness of these strategies can vary depending on the specific habitat. In dense forests, a fox’s stealth and maneuverability may give it an advantage, while in open grasslands, a deer’s speed and long-range vision may prove more effective. The interplay between these factors shapes the outcome of each encounter, influencing the survival chances of both predator and prey.

The Influence of Diet on Survival

Diet plays a pivotal role in the survival strategies of both foxes and deer. Foxes are opportunistic omnivores, consuming a wide range of foods depending on availability. This dietary flexibility allows them to adapt to changing environmental conditions and maintain a consistent food supply, even when preferred prey is scarce.

Deer, as herbivores, rely on a consistent supply of vegetation to meet their nutritional needs. Their survival depends on their ability to locate and consume high-quality forage while avoiding predation. In harsh environments or during periods of resource scarcity, deer may face significant challenges in obtaining sufficient food, leading to increased vulnerability to predation and disease.

The availability and quality of food resources can therefore directly impact the health, reproductive success, and overall survival of both foxes and deer. This underscores the importance of understanding the complex interplay between diet, habitat, and population dynamics in shaping the long-term viability of these species.

Habitat as a Shared Determinant

Shared habitats present both opportunities and challenges for foxes and deer. Forests provide cover and concealment for both species, allowing foxes to stalk their prey undetected and deer to evade predators. Grasslands, on the other hand, offer open spaces where deer can use their speed and agility to escape, while foxes rely on their keen senses to detect and pursue their quarry.

The structure and composition of the habitat can also influence the abundance and distribution of food resources, affecting the dietary habits and survival rates of both species. In areas with diverse vegetation, deer may have access to a wider range of forage, while foxes may benefit from a greater variety of prey. Understanding these complex interactions is crucial for effective wildlife management and conservation efforts.

So, while it’s rare to witness, the answer to "can a fox eat a deer?" is technically yes, especially if the deer is young, injured, or already deceased. Foxes are opportunistic and adaptable, playing their vital role in the ecosystem, even if that role sometimes includes scavenging or preying on deer in vulnerable circumstances.